In the 1920's the Swiss-born, modernist architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965) began formulating and refining his ideas on futuristic inner city living, with cruciform skyscrapers sheathed in glass, steel, and concrete that would, he believed, create a more efficient, classless society. In 1935 he published his ideas under the title La Ville Radieuse (The Radiant City). Toronto in Canada embraced Le Corbusier's vision in a number of high-rise communities with appealing names such as Regent Park and Parkway Forest. Set well back from surrounding streets and footpaths, residents felt no connection to their environment, inhabiting structures separated by broad, mostly empty streets that were in fact just driveways devoid of pedestrian traffic, shops, or any kind of "pulse."

 

Whereas most observers who looked at the skyline of 1930s Stockholm saw overwhelming beauty and grace, Le Corbusier saw only "frightening chaos and saddening monotony." In 1925 he had proposed bulldozing most of central Paris north of the Seine and replacing it with his cruciform towers. In the 1930s and 1940s he attempted to implement his vision of an ideal city by building a series of unites-the housing block of his Radiant City. The best known example of these was the Unite d'Habitation (housing unit), constructed in 1952. Although Le Corbusier's designs were initially seen as utopian and geared to improving living conditions in urban areas, his work was later criticised for being soulless and totalitarian, and his vision has become associated with alienating effects of modern urban planning and architecture.